Medieval China 589-1644 CE:

• Sui Yang Jian (581-604) unifies China after 4 centuries of political disorder known as the Age of Disunity. His reign and that of the emperor after him establishes a practical and consistent government for all of China. This system provides the basis for the rule of the later Tang dynasty
• China’s vast area was also drawn together by a system of canals, the longest in the world, linking the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers and providing an economic route between north and south China
• Confucian religious values were made part of the political administration system of the country, instituted through an extension of the Confucian examination system into administrative areas
• When the Sui dynasty’s military operations against the Turks of Central Eurasia and Korea failed, China’s imperial authority suffered. After a series of rebellions and the death of the last Sui emperor Gao-zi (618-626), the Sui dynasty lost power and the Tang dynasty came to power. Despite its eventual loss of power, the Sui dynasty is remembered for: unifying China, creating an organized government, creating a strong, economic structure, and providing the stable foundation for the golden age which is the rule of the Tang dynasty
• Tang dynasty 618-907. Built on the foundation of the Sui dynasty to form a system of government whose laws and taxes were equitable for all. China became the most powerful of the East Asian countries under the Tang dynasty. Its foreign policy was aggressive and militaristic, imperialist, with military campaigns waged on Central Eurasia, for control of the economically important Silk Road, and into Tibet, Korea and Vietnam
• During the Tang dynasty, China’s administration and education systems became highly developed. All aristocratic Chinese were given similar educations and shared the same world view. Confucianism was the standard.
• Cultural achievement was also at its highest during this period
• While the position of women in the Tang court was better than that of most women in other medieval societies, women still had little political power in China at this time. What power they did wield came through political intrigues at court and through their associations with emperors who could be dominated by them. For example, Empress Wu, wife of emperor Gao-zong, was a case in point. She used her influence with her husband to find important court positions for her relatives and to get rid of anyone who opposed her. She then used her power over those relatives she had placed so carefully in powerful positions, to rule China from behind the scenes. Later she would rule in her own right, the only woman to ever rule China independent of an emperor (690-705). She was finally relieved of her power and her relatives executed or sent into exile
• As the Tang empire expanded, the ability to control and to communicate with outlying areas suffered. Control was left to military and administrative personnel who tended to act on their own and often rebelled against the absent power system. Increasing wealth at the court level led to decadence, corrupt officials and political intrigue. Court eunuchs (castrated male servants) became powerful because they had control of who was allowed to see the emperor. In this way they controlled whose political agendas the emperor heard.
• As the government grew, it became less and less efficient; taxes increased to handle the rising demands of this growth and poverty, in turn, increased. The wealthy class then purchased the peasants’ lands for almost nothing; and crime increased as many of the poorer classes turned to it rather than serve the richer class who had all but stolen their lands
• Rebellion of An Lushan 755-763. Rebellion by a Turkish mercenary in command of the Chinese military in northwestern China. Sensing the weakening of the court, he attempted to seize the throne; and although he failed, he set the stage for a series of rebellions by provincial rulers
• By 818, however, although the authority of the emperors was restored, the Tang dynasty was irrevocably weakened by these rebellions and by internal problems. As poor and rich alike rebelled, the capital at Changan was destroyed and the Tang dynasty fell. China was plagued by 50 years of political upheaval from 907-960 until Song dynasty 960-1279.
• Northern Song 960-1127. Restore order to China after anarchy of 907-960. Time of reform and standardization of government, of cultural achievement. Song dynasty was under constant threat from Central Eurasia’s nomadic tribes, and so never rose to height of power that Tang dynasty held.
• Southern Song 1127-1279. Nomadic tribes of Eurasia join together to attack northern China. Song capital Bainjing destroyed 1126. Northern China invaded 1127. Song forces retreat south to the Yangtze River. Rule southern China while north is now ruled by the invaders. Southern Song empire characterized by expansion of technology and economic growth. Paper money introduced and along with it inflation. Protected by the nature of the land (forest, marshes, rivers) and their exceptional naval force, the Southern Song power held out against the nomad threat. However, when the Mongols attacked in the early 13th century, they could not resist the force against them. Begins the Yuan or Mongol dynasty 1279-1368.
• Mongols conquer China 1211-1279. Mongols invade northern China, attacking the nomadic tribes who had earlier conquered the Song dynasty there. These attacks were in response to Chingis Khan’s attempts to conquer Central Eurasia. By 1234, the Mongol conquest of northern China had succeeded and they were moving in on southern China, which was finally subdued by 1279
• Khublai Khan 1260-1294. Grandson of Chingis Khan. Attempts to control all of East Asia. Combines the Mongol army with the Chinese military, including its technology and its navy. Conquers Korea 1258; Vietnam and Burma 1280s. Unsuccessfully tries to conquer Japan in 1274 and 1281. Dies 1294 and expansion of territory stalls.
• Late 13th century, Mongol empire is disintegrating. Mongols had ruled but never been truly accepted by Chinese, so a caste system had formed in which Mongols were the higher caste, with their allies next in line, and the southern Chinese at the lowest level. Mongols were also Buddhist, while Chinese were mostly Confucian
• During the 1340s a flood of the Yellow River cause economic disaster. Discontent resulted in a rebellion led by Buddhists who called themselves the Red Turbans. Brought under control in 1355, they rose again during the 1360s and eventually drove the Mongols out by 1368, A leader of the rebellion was Buddhist monk Hung-wu (1368-1398). He founded the Ming dynasty, bringing together all of China by 1382. He reestablished Confucianism and the earlier Confucian examination system for administration, brought down the Mongol system of military aristocratic rule and replaced it with the Confucian system, but kept the Mongol idea of imperial authority and autocracy.
• The Mongols continued to attack, despite having been expelled from China, and various campaigns were fought against them in Mongolia. The Great Wall of China (built in the 3rd century BCE) was extended by 600 miles in order to curb Mongol attacks; and seems to have worked since attacks between 1550 and 1570 were turned back.
• 1405-1433. Ming dynasty naval power, used to destroy pirates along the China coast during the last years of the Mongol dynasty, was now used to explore Southeast Asia, India, the Persian Gulf region, the Red Sea and Africa’s eastern coast. They explored, they traded, they conquered, but they did not reach as far as Europe, only because they did not feel European foreigners had anything of value to teach them. So it is, that European explorers would be the ones to discover the Americas and Asia
• As the Ming dynasty’s power declined during the late 16th century, oppression increased and rebellion followed. Beijing was conquered and the way was clear for a new power, that of the Eurasian Manchus Through all the changes in dynasties, rebellions, and shifts of power, the Chinese government kept the structure developed in the Han dynasty. Emperor-served by court eunuchs and a bureaucracy. The common people had little voice in the government and so were left with only one choice when dissatisfied: rebellion.
• 2 important aspects of Chinese government during medieval period: examination system and Confucian Bureaucratic Aristocracy
• Examination system: (finalized during Song dynasty) Chinese university examination system: to obtain a government post one had to pass the exam. Those taking the exams were usually in their mid-thirties and had attained an educational level much like our Ph.D. degree in modern times. One must memorize the 13 Chinese Classics and be tested by essay on knowledge, writing style, and calligraphy. This system was used in China until 1905.
• Confucian Bureaucratic Aristocracy: (finalized form during Song dynasty) Social power based on wealth, education and holding of a government office. Although anyone could take the exams and theoretically earn a government position, the complex system of education and examination meant that only the aristocracy would benefit. Must have wealth to get the proper education; must have education to take the exam; must pass the exam to get a government position; a government position could lead to more wealth. Wealth might begin with land ownership, but eventually on obtaining the government position, wealth came from use of power in the government.
• Religion: Buddhism: major religion of Chinese medieval period. 3 important developments in Chinese Buddhism during this period. During Tang dynasty, Chinese Buddhism greatest influence on art, literature, architecture. Many temples, monasteries built during Tang rule. Central Eurasian Turks and Mongols also support Buddhism as a religion and as a counterpoint to the Chinese Confucian bureaucratic organization
• Buddhism divides into denominations. East Asian Buddhism form Mahayana traditions of northwest India divides and major denominations are formed. Tiantai: mystical meditation; Pure Land sect: salvation comes only through absolute faith and devotion to the Boddhisattva Amida (A-mi-to-fu). Chan Buddhism: discipline and sudden enlightenment (in Japan this became a form of Zen)
• From China Buddhism spreads to Korea, Japan, and ideas are exchanged between the international groups. Neo-Confucianism: 9th century, influence of Han Yu (768-824), Song dynasty
• Under Neo-Confucianism the Confucian Classics (Canon) developed by Zhu Xi (1130-1200). Basic writings of Confucius, some other early Chinese texts, and some important Confucian writings of later origin. Became the foundation for Confucianism and for the Confucian education system. Must be memorized perfectly to pass the government exam.
• Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism had competed for years for religious influence, but by the Song dynasty Confucianism had been so influenced by Buddhism and Daoism that the 3 were brought together in Neo-Confucianism: combining Confucian ethics, politics, philosophy with Buddhist and Daoist metaphysics and mystical speculation
• Most important concern of Confucianism was that of the ideal state. Confucianists controlled the education system and through it the government and the state.
• 3 areas of scholarship where medieval Confucianism made important inroads: philosophical thought, the editing and preserving of ancient Chinese texts, historical writing. Chinese literature of medieval period, important as representative of Chinese traditions and as world literature
• Poetry: one of 3 important skills of the Confucian educated gentleman (calligraphy and painting the other 2).
• Tang dynasty produced enormous body of poetry, greater even than that of Greece/Rome. 2 most famous medieval poets: Li Bo (701-762) and Du Fu (712-770), used vivid imagery, themes about nature, and incorporated political ideas in their poems
• Prose: short story important form during Tang dynasty. Initially, these stories incorporated fantasy and supernatural elements, but by the 9th century realism was beginning to influence the writers.
• Drama/Opera: Yuan period. Drama was operatic, poetic, musical. Art/Architecture: Medieval period, influenced by Buddhism, nature and landscapes. Styles included black ink drawings, accompanied by poetry.
• Chinese technology of the period. Invention of paper (traditionally silk and bamboo strips were used). Paper inexpensive; more books could be written, preserved. Printing, appears 8th century CE, spreads east to Europe by 15th century (result: Gutenberg‘s printing press and moveable type). However, the complexity of their writing system offset the importance of the printing press. Literacy and education did not spread as fast or as far down the economic chain as they did in Europe later.
• Iron technology developed in the Near East during the 2nd millennium BCE. The Chinese improved the technology by developing better, cheaper metals, new technology for smelting and casting the metal, ways of strengthening the steel, and the use of coal as furnace fuel instead of wood. Period of Song dynasty known for its iron factories and for the fineness of its steel product. Chinese iron technology reached Europe during the late 14th century and influenced the economic growth of the period and the coming of the Industrial Revolution.
• Gunpowder: invented in China (c. 850 CE). Originally used for entertainment or religious purposes, the technology reached Europe during the 14th century and was used to create powerful war weapons which allowed Europe to dominate countries like America, Africa, and Asia militarily during the 16th and 17th centuries.
• Mariner’s Compass: Knowledge of magnetism in China for centuries, used for religious purposes (divination). Invention of compass 12th century influences exploration, sailing, trading, etc. Not known for sure whether the compass was invented independently in Europe or whether Europeans borrowed the technology from the Chinese through other cultures, but it greatly influenced the European period of exploration and expansion
• Chinese culture, however, never developed a system of scientific method, so their inventions were always for practical purposes to solve immediate problems. The western countries, on the other hand, restructured their societies and their world views to accommodate science and technological change (the Scientific Revolution), giving them power technologically and militarily over east Asia until our modern day 20th and 21st centuries.

Notes taken from:

Longman Anthology of World Literature: Volume B. General editor, David Damrosch. (2004)

World History to 1648. HarperCollins College Outline. Editors, Jay Pascal Anglin and William J. Hamblin. (1993)